After separating from the Czech Republic, the Slovak media landscape initially had some difficulty keeping up with its Eastern European neighbors in establishing an independent and diverse media market – even though it has made impressive progress towards media pluralism and press freedom in recent years. A government under Prime Minister Vladimír Meciar, who abused the media as its mouthpiece and kept press freedom as narrowly as possible, slowed the transition to a free media landscape until 1998, and even thereafter, progress was initially rather slow, as Parliament only gradually relinquished its power over the media. It is therefore not surprising that Slovakia is the only European country to have a state-run news agency (TASR). Since the establishment of a second agency in 1997, it no longer has a monopoly, and Slovakia is in the rare position of having two news agencies in such a small country.

In contrast, public broadcasting RSTV neither the market leader in radio nor television. The media landscape is dominated primarily by private providers – however, the variety of offerings is now impressive for a relatively small country. Furthermore, the penetration of Hungarian and especially Czech-language media is very high, which is partly due to the large Hungarian minority (8.5% of the total population) and partly due to the linguistic and historical proximity to the Czech Republic.

Newspaper sales have plummeted over the past decade, primarily due to the ever-growing online offering, which has become very popular among the Slovak population. The content of the print editions of the country's major newspapers is now all accessible via internet portals. Slovakia has positioned itself as a pioneer in this area, as a particularly high number of cross-platform subscriptions have been signed there to access paid content. This makes the online business significantly more attractive for newspapers.

General Information

Inhabitants: 5.45 million (2021)
Religions: Roman Catholic Church (621,000 people), Protestant Church (5,91,000 people), Greek Catholic Church (3,81,000 people)
Largest city: Bratislava (440,948 inhabitants, 2020)
Form of government: parliamentary democracy
Head of State: President Zuzana Caputová (since June 15, 2019)
Head of the government: Robert Fico
EU-member since: 2004
Unemployment rate: 6.8% (Dec. 2021), 13.5% (Oct. 2014)
National debt as a percentage of GDP: 60,43% (2021), 55,4% (2013), 43,6% (2011), 27,9% (2008)
Budget balance relative to GDP: -6,47% (2021), -1,98% (2014), -3,68% (2011), -1,2% (2008)
Share of global GDP: 0,13% (2021), 0,165% (2014)

Largest media groups: JOJ Group, Ringier Axel Springer, Petit Press, Central European Media Enterprise, RTVS
Broadcasting fee: €4.64 per month for all persons registered with electricity suppliers

History and Profile

For almost 70 years (1918–1992, except for 1939–1945), Slovakia was united with the Czech Republic – this close connection continues today. Czech media play an important role in the Slovak media landscape; language skills and interest in the neighboring country allow Czech content to actively participate in the market in Slovakia. For example, Czech dubbing is very popular, as Slovakia generally cannot afford to dub films and series for its small market.

After the fall of the Iron Curtain and the Velvet Revolution – which in the early 1990s ensured that what was then Czechoslovakia became one of the eastern pioneers in the transformation of the media landscape – Slovakia nevertheless found it difficult to establish freedom of expression and freedom of the press and to create a diverse system of independent media. Just a few years ago, there were protests by journalists and newspaper campaigns to draw attention to the poor state of freedom of expression in Slovakia.
Especially from 1992 to 1998, the development of a free media landscape was severely hampered by Vladimír Me?iar's government – companies close to the government were supported, and critical voices were suppressed.

The oldest Slovak newspaper still published is the Pravda (Truth), which first appeared in September 1920 and, since the Soviet takeover, was primarily used as a mouthpiece for the Communist Party. A veritable flood of new newspapers began to appear in the late 1990s, when the market finally opened up and foreign investors, in particular, began investing on a large scale.

In 2011, Slovak radio and television merged to form a public broadcaster of the Rozhlas a televízia Slovenska (RTVS)In the 1990s, the state broadcaster was repeatedly accused of corruption and was strongly tied to the ruling party, especially in its news broadcasts. Since 1998, with the change of director, an increasing degree of independence has been evident. The broadcasting fee, which had been suspended for several years, was reinstated in 2013 following the broadcaster's ongoing financial problems.

Despite the ongoing challenges, the situation of the Slovak press landscape has improved dramatically in recent years. Compared to 2022 alone, Slovakia climbed ten places in Reporters Without Borders' 2023 press freedom ranking, climbing from 27th to 17th out of 180. This puts the landlocked Central European country ahead of Germany, which ranked 21st in 2023. Overall, the media landscape has undergone significant changes and increased diversity, as evidenced by the fact that only a few individual corporations can no longer hold a significant position in the media market.

The largest media companies and corporations

JOJ Group (J&T Media Enterprises)

J&T is a Central European investment group based in Bratislava (Slovakia), Prague (Czech Republic), and Nicosia (Cyprus), founded in Slovakia in 1993. The company operates in the private equity and banking sectors, with the majority of its investments located in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. J&T primarily invests in financial services, the energy sector, real estate, healthcare, sports, and media.

The JOJ Group (J&T Media Enterprises), which belongs to the group, is the largest media company in the country. It operates radio, TV, and online formats across various media platforms. The best-known part of the JOJ Group is the television station "TV JOJ." This private television station is one of the most popular TV channels in Slovakia and offers a wide range of entertainment programs, news, series, shows, and films. The company's well-known radio stations include "Rádio Jemné," which specializes in soft music, and "Rádio Expres," which plays mainly popular music. In addition to its broadcasting activities, the JOJ Group is also active in the online media industry. It operates various websites and online platforms that offer current news, information, and entertainment content. Among the best-known sites are the two news portals Aktuality.sk and Topky.sk.

Ringier Axel Springer

The Zurich-based group, which belongs to the German Axel Springer SE, has also been active in Poland, Serbia, Hungary, and Slovakia since 2010. The media group is a major player in the print media sector and operates several newspapers and magazines in Slovakia, including "Život," "Blikk," "Reflex," and "ABC."

Since 2010, Ringier Axel Springer has held 70% of the shares in the internet company AZET, which was integrated into the group in June 2016. AZET is a major online media company in Slovakia that operates various web portals, including azet.sk, one of the country's most popular news websites.

Petit Press

Petit Press is a major Slovak publisher of multimedia products and services (media house) founded in 2000 and headquartered in Bratislava. The media group is best known for publishing several well-known Slovak newspapers, including "SME" (one of the country's leading dailies), "Korzár," "My," "Ôsmi dva," and other regional newspapers. The company employs more than 600 people and, in addition to its publishing activities, operates a distribution network and two printing plants in Bratislava and Košice.

Central European Media Enterprises (CME)

Central European Media Enterprises Ltd. (CME) is a publicly traded media holding company founded in 1994 by US entrepreneur Ronald Lauder. Although CME is headquartered in Bermuda, the company owns TV and radio stations in several Central European countries. In Slovakia, CME operates the television stations "TV Doma," "TV Markiza," "Nova Sport," and "Dajto."

RTVS (Rádio a televízia Slovenska)

Slovak Radio and Television (RTVS) is the public broadcaster of Slovakia. RTVS is responsible for providing radio and television programming in the country. RTVS was founded in 2011 through the merger of two former public radio and television broadcasters: Slovenská televízia (Slovak Television) and Slovenský rozhlas (Slovak Radio). The merger was part of an effort to increase efficiency and strengthen the country's public broadcasting services. As a public broadcaster, RTVS is committed to providing a variety of programs and content that reflect the needs and interests of Slovak citizens. This includes information and news programs, educational programs, cultural content, entertainment programs, and sports broadcasts.

RTVS operates several television channels, including "Jednotka" (First Channel), "Dvojka" (Second Channel), and "Doma" (a regional station). The company also operates the radio stations "Rádio Slovensko," "Rádio Regina," "Rádio Devín," and "Rádio_FM," which cover a variety of music genres and programming, including current affairs, music, and discussion formats. RTVS maintains an extensive online presence with an official website where viewers and listeners have access to live streams, on-demand content, and other information about the station's programs.

Press

The Slovak press landscape has experienced a sharp decline in readership since the end of the 2000s. The most successful daily newspaper Nový Cas (New era) compared to 189,000 copies in 2006, the circulation in 2021 was only 49,000. This decline is mainly due to the internet portals that are now offered by all major newspapers. The online version of the oldest daily newspaper, the Pravda (Truth), has long since overtaken the print edition and had over 1.5 million visitors in June 2023.

Nový Cas is currently owned by the media house FPD Media, but was distributed by Ringier Axel Springer Media until July 31, 2018. Before the Velvet Revolution of 1989, Pravda was the central organ of the Communist Party of Slovakia. Today, the newspaper and its publishing company, Perex, are owned by the Czech company Florena. More well-known regional newspapers include "Korzár" and "My," as well as "Nový ?as – Žilinská" and "Nový ?as – Prešovská" – each of which are regional editions of the national daily "Nový ?as."

In addition to Pravda and Nový ?as, the prominent daily newspapers also include SME. SME is valued for its independent reporting and investigative journalism, while Pravda and Nový ?as are known for popular reporting and entertainment content. SME has always been committed to journalistic freedom. In 1993, she was attacked by some former employees of the daily newspaper Smena who had left their jobs because they accused the then Prime Minister Vladimír Meciar of Smena political influence. Since a large proportion of readers also made the switch and SME preferred, the two newspapers merged in 1995. At the beginning of the 2000s, the direct competitor Practice (work). Already at its founding, SME to the Internet and established an expert blog in recent years – today it is the most popular newspaper portal in the country with more than 2 million visitors.

The number of journals and magazines has increased rapidly by more than 150% since 1989. Women's magazines, such as Emma or Slovenka have been able to re-establish themselves since then. The number of religious (according to the Slovak distribution, mainly Catholic) magazines has also almost tripled – the largest of them Catholic news sold about 60,000 units.

Slovak Spectator is the only English-language newspaper. It has been published by The Rock sro since 1995 and appears once a week. With its local news, cultural and business information, the Slovak Spectator primarily aimed at foreigners living in Slovakia or Slovaks with good English skills. The circulation is quite small, at about 5,000 copies.

Television

Television is still the most widely used medium in Slovakia – over 98% of residents own at least one television set. In addition to public broadcasting, there are also several private channels, as well as some specialty and regional stations. The state broadcaster Rozhlas on television Slovenska (RTVS), which emerged in 2011 from the merger of Slovak radio and television, currently broadcasts the programs Jednotka and Dvojka and Doma From 2008 to 2011, there was also the sports channel Troika, which had to be discontinued on December 1, 2022 due to financial problems. RTVS is financed by a relatively low monthly broadcasting fee (4.64€), advertising and government subsidies and is in a persistent economic crisis.

The two major public broadcasters are only in third place in terms of market share (Jednotka 5.91% of the total) and eight (Dvojka 1.41%). In the past ten years, the broadcasters' market shares have more than halved. While Jednotka Apart from the news, the content can now be compared with Slovak private broadcasters, Dvojka focuses on education, religion, minorities and politics as topics. For budgetary reasons, Dvojka many repetitions from the archive or uses already purchased foreign productions. Jednotka as well as Dvojka  are far behind the market leader TV Markiza (18.1%, see Fig. I). This went on air in 1996 and quickly took the lead in the viewership statistics. TV Markiza broadcasts primarily entertainment – American series and films, game shows, and, for example, the first Slovak soap opera. Like several other Eastern European programs, the channel belongs to Central European Media Enterprises (CME), which in turn is almost entirely owned by the PPF Group. Doma and Dajto has Markiza TV two sister channels that specialize in a younger female and male audience respectively.

The second largest Slovak broadcaster is TV JOJ with a market share of 12%. The station was founded in 2002 by Vladimír Železný (former head of the Czech television TV Nova) and broadcasts mainly American series, but it uses more than its competitor Markiza TV also to domestic and Czech productions that can be broadcast without dubbing. JOJ Plus started in 2008 as a spin-off, which mainly broadcasts older programs from TV JOJ Both channels, along with other niche channels such as JOJ Wau, JOJ Cinema, JOJ Sport, and JOJ 24, belong to the Slovak JOJ Group (J&T Media Enterprises).

A special case in the Slovak television landscape is the approximately 12% market share attributable to Czech television (see Figure II). Reception is possible in large parts of Slovakia, and the linguistic and historical proximity to the Czech Republic makes it an attractive alternative.

The largest minority are Hungarians with 8.5%, so Hungarian television has a market share of about 3-4% in Slovakia.

Before 1998, private broadcasters in Slovakia were officially prohibited from broadcasting political news, while state television took its title literally and, according to a study, devoted 47% of its news broadcast time to the ruling party.

Fig. I: The most-watched TV channels in Slovakia in 2022 (by market share of the total audience over 12 years)

Fig. II: Market shares of the largest TV groups in Slovakia in 2022 (total audience over 12 years)

radio

Public radio

The state radio has been broadcasting since 1926 and now transmits on nine stations, three of which (SRo7 until SRo9) can only be received digitally. The remaining five (SRo1 until SRo6) represent the main programs, which can be divided thematically according to target group. Radio Slovensko (SRo1) is the most successful of them and has the second largest market share of 18% (behind the private Radio Express with 20%). Radio Regina (SRo2) is far behind with 7%, it mainly broadcasts regional and minority programs mixed with oldies and folk music. Radio Devin (SRo3) is the only one of the five main channels that does not rank among the top 10. It can be understood as a cultural program that broadcasts classical music, jazz, radio plays, literature, and art.

Radio_FM (SRo4) is dedicated to alternative music and primarily strives to provide a platform for artists who don't receive airtime on commercial stations. Its fourth main channel focuses on festival broadcasts and modern podcasting and social media technology. Furthermore, the station annually presents the popular Radio Head Awards for the best Slovak musicians. This achieves a market share of 31%.

Radio Patria (SRo5) targets the country's largest minority and broadcasts in Hungarian, putting it in direct competition with Radio Regina (SRo2), which already broadcasts 40 hours a week specifically for the Hungarian population.

Beyond national borders, Radio Slovakia International (SRo6) gained notoriety. The foreign service of RTVS was founded in Bratislava on January 1, 1993, immediately after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. It broadcasts information about Slovakia for Slovaks living abroad, as well as in English, German, French, Russian, and, since 2003, Spanish. The program consists primarily of news, features, interviews, cultural programs, and Slovak music.

In 2006, shortwave operations were discontinued for budgetary reasons. Following strong international protests, shortwave transmissions resumed four months later. Since 2011, however, broadcasts have been provided exclusively via satellite and the internet.

The last three public broadcasters (Radio Klasika, Literata and Junior) broadcast classical music, literary programs or children's programs.

Private radio

The first private radio station (Fun Radio) went on air in 1990 – today there are eight national programs. Radio Express is the ratings leader with more than a fifth of the market share and reaches approximately 900,000 listeners daily. Since its launch in 2000, its programming has been characterized by a mass-appealing mix of news and pop music. Radio Express belongs to the US group Emmis Communications, which otherwise only owns American channels and magazines.

Next to Radio Express and Radio Slovensko (SRo1) is Fun Radio The last Slovak station with a double-digit market share. The private station broadcasts more contemporary music and thus targets younger listeners.

Internet

Today, the spread of the Internet in Slovakia is very advanced. According to the Digital Report 2022 by DataReportal, approximately 90 percent of Slovaks used the Internet in 2022. As in most smaller countries, the awakening interest in the Internet initially focused on foreign sources, but gradually Slovak companies also began producing content for the Internet. Due to the sharp decline in circulation, almost all newspapers are now trying to market their content through other distribution channels, primarily the Internet. This is done through advertising, but full articles and archive material are often subject to a fee. Slovakia was the first country to attract attention with a new system: The company Piano Media has acquired several large newspapers (SME, Slovak Spectator, Plus 7 days, Dennik sport) and several video portals were combined under a system that motivated consumers to pay €1.99/week or €4.89/month and in return received access to all the exclusive content of the participating sites. This principle had caught on and was implemented in other European countries, such as Poland and Slovenia.

Online media are very successful in Slovakia. Almost half of the top 20 most visited websites in Slovakia are news portals – nine in total. The most successful news portals are Current from Ringier Axel Springer (rank 4), SME by Petit Press (rank 5) and Pravda by Our Media SR (rank 6) and Topky from the JOJ Group (rank 7).

Facebook from Meta Platforms, Inc. is also the most popular social network in Slovakia (ranked 3rd), far ahead of the Instagram (14th place). The list of most visited websites in Slovakia differs from many other European countries. While the top three spots are shared by US companies Alphabet Inc. and Meta Platforms, Inc., the vast majority of the remaining rankings are dominated by Slovak providers.

Table I: The most visited websites in Slovakia, June 2023

Rank	Webpage:	Description	Parent company
1.	Google.com	Search engine	Alphabet Inc.
2.	YouTube.com	Video portal	Alphabet Inc.
3.	Facebook.com	Social network	Meta Platforms, Inc.
4.	Aktuality.sk	News	Ringier Axel Springer
5.	SME.sk	News	Petit Press
6.	Pravda.sk	News	Our Media SR
7.	Topky.sk	News	JOJ Group
8.	Google.sk	Search engine	Alphabet Inc.
9.	Zoznam.sk	Web portal	Slovak Telekom
10.	Bazos.sk	e-commerce	Bazoš
11.	Dennikn.sk	News	N Press
12.	Shmu.sk	Weather service	Slovak hydrometeorological institute
13.	Cas.sk	News	FPD Media
14.	Instagram.com	Social network	Meta Platforms, Inc.
15.	Azet.sk	News	Ringier Axel Springer
16.	Edupage.org	Education	aSc Applied Software Consultants, sro
17.	Pluska.sk	News	News and Media Holding
18.	Wikipedia.org	Encyclopedia	Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
19.	Profesia.sk	Job search engine	Profesia, spol. s ro
20.	Hnonline.sk	News	Mafra Slovakia as

 Source: Similarweb.com

Regulations

Between 1990 and 1992, more than 15 fundamental new laws or changes in the media sector were implemented in Czechoslovakia, primarily aimed at freedom of expression and the creation of free media outlets.

Since its founding in 1993, Slovakia has embarked on a more or less rocky path (including a few detours) to press freedom. The first years under the government of Vladimír Meciar, until 1998, were characterized by a very cautious opening to Western investors and strong influence on both state and private media. In the awarding of licenses and the privatization of companies, domestic corporations, especially those close to the government, were given preference, so that Slovakia's opening to the West came later than in most other former Eastern Bloc countries.

During Vladimír Meciar's term in office, actions against anti-government reporting included intimidation of journalists, denial of access to information, exploitation of pro-government media, and sometimes even the interruption of television stations' power supplies. In 1997, the Slovak Parliament attempted to increase newspaper taxes by almost 400%, which would have meant the end of many independent newspapers. However, after international protests, the proposal was withdrawn.

Even under Prime Minister Robert Fico, there were and still are some disagreements with the media. In 2007, for example, he allegedly declared war on the media and instructed the judiciary to deal with the 'unethical' behavior of journalists.

A year later, despite widespread national protests, a new version of the press law was introduced, strengthening the right of reply. This allows for an appropriate reply to any 'defamation' claim. Publishers criticized the 'defamation' claim for not being sufficiently clarified and for the fact that it was even covering up the truth.

The Slovak Broadcasting Council was established in 1992. It oversees the implementation of media laws, freedom of expression, and the formation of cartels, and prepares a comprehensive annual report for the Slovak Parliament. Subdivisions include the Slovak Radio Council and the Television Council, which establish long-term budget plans for public broadcasters, elect their directors, and review their own statutes.

In 2001, the first Freedom of Information Act was introduced in Slovakia, guaranteeing all citizens access to all non-secret information held by Parliament and regional governments.

An independent Press and Media Council, established by the Association and Community of Slovak Journalists and Publishers, has been operating since 2002. The council consists of nine members from the participating associations and handles complaints regarding media standards and advises the Ministry of Culture.

The Licensing Council is an additional elected body that allocates licenses and controls the market accordingly.

The Slovak Public Information Media Act regulates the rights and obligations of the media towards private individuals, institutions, and other companies. To prevent the formation of monopolies, the law prohibits owners of newspapers, radio, or television stations from holding more than 20% of the shares in another Slovak media company.

Sources/Literature

• DataReportal: Digital 2022 in Slovakia (2023).
• Dobrotková, Miroslava., Bekmatov, Artur., Chlebcová He?ková, Andrea., Kuciak, Ján. Slovak Mass Media in the 21st Century: Current Challenges. Austria: Peter Lang (2019).
• Huber, Silvia (ed.): Media in the new EU countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Krems (2003).
• Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis (2014).
• Psychogiopoulou, Evangelia (ed.): Understanding Media Policies – A European Perspective, London (2012).
• Similarweb: Most visited websites in Slovakia (2023).
• Shkolkay, Andrej: Media Law in Slovakia, Bedfordshire (2013).
• Školkay, Andrej. Media Law in Slovakia. Netherlands: Kluwer Law International (2016).
• Süddeutsche Zeitung: New flat rate hope from Slovakia, 12.01.2012.